The Unification of Germany (1862-1871)

King Wilhelm I of Prussia appoints Otto von Bismarck as Minister President amid a constitutional crisis over military reform. Bismarck delivers his famous "Blood and Iron" speech and begins governing without parliamentary approval, ignoring the liberal majority. He is determined to unify Germany under Prussian leadership through "iron and blood" rather than speeches and majority resolutions.

Prussia and Austria jointly declare war on Denmark over the disputed territories of Schleswig and Holstein. The Danish army is quickly overwhelmed, and by October Denmark cedes the duchies. The victory gives Bismarck his first prestige victory and sets the stage for the next phase — turning on Austria to eliminate it as a rival for German leadership.

Bismarck provokes Austria into declaring war by proposing a reorganization of the German Confederation that excludes Austria. Prussia's modern army, equipped with the innovative Dreyse needle gun, invades Bohemia. Most German states side with Austria, but Prussia's superior military organization and railway system give it a decisive advantage.

The decisive battle of the war takes place at Koniggratz (also known as Sadowa) in Bohemia. Prussia's 220,000 troops under General Helmuth von Moltke defeat Austria's 215,000 soldiers through superior strategic coordination — the first major battle where railways and telegraphs play a decisive role. Austria loses 40,000 men and is forced to accept Prussian terms.

The Peace of Prague dissolves the German Confederation and excludes Austria permanently from German affairs. Austria cedes Venetia to Italy and pays a small indemnity. Prussia annexes several rebellious German states including Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, and Frankfurt. The North German Confederation is created under Prussian leadership, encompassing all German states north of the Main River.

The North German Confederation adopts its constitution, creating a federal state with Wilhelm I as President and Bismarck as Chancellor. The Reichstag is elected by universal male suffrage — a surprising move from Bismarck that outflanks liberals. The four south German states (Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt) remain independent but sign military alliances with Prussia.

Bismarck edits and publishes the Ems Dispatch — a telegram from King Wilhelm I describing a diplomatic exchange with the French ambassador over the Spanish succession crisis. Bismarck's shortened version makes it appear that the Prussian king insulted the French ambassador. France, feeling provoked and humiliated, declares war on Prussia on July 19.

The Prussian army, using superior mobilization and railways, surrounds and defeats the main French army at Sedan. Emperor Napoleon III himself is captured along with 104,000 French soldiers. The defeat leads to the collapse of the Second French Empire and the proclamation of the Third French Republic in Paris the following day.

Prussian forces begin a four-month siege of Paris. The city is completely cut off, and Parisians endure severe food shortages, eating cats, dogs, rats, and eventually zoo animals. Despite attempts at breakout and the new French Army of the Loire's efforts to relieve the city, Paris is forced to surrender in January 1871.

After unification, Bismarck works to secure the new German Empire through a complex system of alliances designed to isolate France and maintain peace. He brokers the Three Emperors' League (1873) with Austria-Hungary and Russia and presides over the Congress of Berlin (1878). The system keeps Europe at peace for nearly two decades.

In a carefully stage-managed ceremony in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, King Wilhelm I of Prussia is proclaimed German Emperor (Kaiser). The south German states formally join the new federation. The choice of Versailles — the very symbol of French monarchy — is a deliberate humiliation of France. The Second German Reich is born as the dominant power on the European continent.

The Treaty of Frankfurt formally ends the Franco-Prussian War. France cedes Alsace and most of Lorraine to Germany and agrees to pay an indemnity of five billion francs. German troops occupy eastern France until the indemnity is paid (which France does ahead of schedule by 1873). The loss of Alsace-Lorraine fuels French revanchism and casts a long shadow over European politics leading to World War I.