The Prohibition Era (1920–1933)
The thirteen-year period when the United States constitutionally banned the production, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages. Known as the "Noble Experiment," Prohibition emerged from decades of temperance activism and was intended to reduce crime, corruption, and social problems. Instead, it fueled the rise of organized crime syndicates, widespread illegal speakeasies, and systematic corruption of law enforcement, before being repealed by the 21st Amendment. The era remains one of America's most consequential social experiments.
Events
The Temperance Movement Gains National Momentum
The Anti-Saloon League is founded in Oberlin, Ohio, becoming the most powerful single-issue lobbying organization in American history. Together with the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (founded 1874), the League wages a sustained campaign against the "liquor traffic," blaming saloons for political corruption, domestic violence, and social decay. By 1910, the dry movement has achieved prohibition in several states and shifts its focus to a constitutional amendment banning alcohol nationwide.
The 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act
The 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified by 46 of 48 states, prohibiting "the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors" within the United States. The Volstead Act, passed over President Woodrow Wilson's veto in October 1919, defines "intoxicating liquors" as any beverage containing more than 0.5% alcohol by volume. The amendment includes a one-year grace period, setting the start of national prohibition for January 17, 1920.
National Prohibition Begins
The 18th Amendment takes effect, making it illegal to manufacture, sell, or transport alcohol in the United States. The night before, known as the "last call," Americans stockpile alcohol. Breweries, distilleries, and saloons across the country close their doors. The federal government establishes the Prohibition Unit within the Treasury Department to enforce the law, but with only about 3,000 agents for the entire country, enforcement proves nearly impossible from the start.
Speakeasies, Bootlegging, and the Rise of Organized Crime
Illegal saloons called "speakeasies" proliferate across American cities, numbering in the tens of thousands by the mid-1920s. Bootleggers smuggle alcohol from Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean, while domestic "moonshiners" produce illicit liquor from corn and sugar. Criminal syndicates organize the production and distribution networks, with gangsters like Al Capone in Chicago and Lucky Luciano in New York building multi-million-dollar operations. The high profits of illegal alcohol fuel turf wars, bribery of police and politicians, and a dramatic expansion of organized crime.
The Saint Valentine's Day Massacre
In the most notorious event of Prohibition-era organized crime, Al Capone's gang, disguised as police officers, executes seven members of George "Bugs" Moran's North Side Gang in a Chicago garage. The massacre shocks the nation and turns public opinion against the violence associated with prohibition. Although Capone is widely believed to have ordered the killings, he is never charged for them. The event crystallizes the public perception that prohibition has empowered violent criminals rather than improving society.
The Wickersham Commission Reports Failure
The National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, chaired by former Attorney General George Wickersham and appointed by President Herbert Hoover, issues its highly anticipated report on prohibition enforcement. While the commission does not formally recommend repeal, it documents widespread non-compliance, inadequate enforcement resources, corruption among enforcement officials, and the massive growth of organized crime. The report's findings seriously undermine political support for maintaining prohibition.
The Great Depression Shifts Public Opinion
As the Great Depression deepens, support for repeal grows dramatically. Prohibition opponents argue that legalizing alcohol would create thousands of jobs, generate much-needed tax revenue, and eliminate the violent black market. The Democratic Party platform explicitly calls for repeal of the 18th Amendment, and Franklin D. Roosevelt's landslide victory in the November 1932 election is widely interpreted as a mandate to end prohibition.
The 21st Amendment Repeals Prohibition
Congress passes the 21st Amendment, which repeals the 18th Amendment and returns alcohol regulation to the states. It is the only constitutional amendment ever passed for the purpose of repealing another. Ratification proceeds rapidly as state conventions vote to repeal. On December 5, 1933, Utah becomes the 36th state to ratify, reaching the three-quarters threshold. Prohibition officially ends. President Roosevelt famously comments: "I think this would be a good time for a beer."